Congratulations on your honourable mention for the John Legge Prize 2025! Can you tell us a bit about your thesis? What is the topic it explores and what did you find?

My doctoral research examines China’s cultural diplomacy, with a particular focus on the China Cultural Centres (‘CCCs’) which are cultural organisations established by the Chinese Ministry of Culture and Tourism. My research investigates the establishment, operation, and programming of CCCs through a diverse range of data sources, including policy/official documents, media/journalistic publications, academic literature, non-academic material (memoirs, catalogues, personal letters, and speech notes), and semi-structured interviews. The thesis analyses their structural and operational characteristics, offering insights into their working modes and key activities, drawing primarily on Australia-based case studies. Through this analysis, I reflect on the broader implications of my findings for the CCC project, contributing to a deeper understanding of China’s cultural diplomacy in the 21st century and expanding current scholarly discussions in the field.

My thesis finds that the setup and programming focus of CCCs have led to comparatively less criticism from overseas than that directed at the Confucius Institutes (CIs). It also shows that the operation and programming of CCCs reflect common views of Chinese cultural diplomacy—strategically orientated, state-led, and quantity-driven, while highlighting the inclusion of foreign collaborators and a bottom-up strategy for facilitating engagement and understanding.

My thesis argues that receiving less criticism abroad does not equate to CCCs’ success, which first depends on how their funding and staffing challenges can be addressed, and further hinges on the reception and impact of their cultural programs in host countries. To enhance their effectiveness, my research calls for more flexibility and autonomy in CCCs’ operations, suggesting a shift away from a top-down approach.

How did you first become interested in this topic?

Before beginning my PhD, I worked in both Chinese and Australian cultural organisations. These experiences deepened my interest in cultural diplomacy and prompted me to reflect on the broader role of culture within diplomatic studies and international relations. This combination of curiosity and reflective engagement with cultural diplomacy inspired me to pursue a PhD.

I first encountered the CCCs about a decade ago, at a time when China was rapidly expanding its overseas cultural diplomacy following the rise of soft power as a prominent concept in Chinese politics at the turn of the century. CCCs emerged at the forefront of Chinese cultural diplomacy, as the government accelerated their global rollout and pledged to establish four to five new centres each year. Their political significance was underscored by visits from top Chinese leaders: former President Hu Jintao attended the foundation stone ceremony of the Berlin CCC in 2005; former Premier Wen Jiabao inaugurated the Bangkok CCC in 2012; and President Xi Jinping unveiled the Sydney CCC in 2014.

This raised a set of questions for me: what exactly are these centres? How do they operate? What kinds of programs do they deliver? And what role do they play in Chinese cultural diplomacy? These questions sparked my interest in CCCs as a research topic. What further motivated me was the gap in scholarship: while there is a growing body of research on Chinese soft power and cultural diplomacy, much of it focuses on Chinese media (television and news agencies), cinema, or CIs. By contrast, CCCs, China’s only official cultural promotion organisations established abroad, have remained largely overlooked. My research therefore seeks to draw academic attention to this neglected yet highly relevant aspect of China’s international cultural engagement.

What was the most challenging aspect of doing this research?

Managing the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic while balancing family commitments during my PhD was one of the greatest challenges for me. Despite this, with the tremendous support of my family and my supervisors, Dr Jeffrey Gil and Dr Nicholas Godfrey, I successfully navigated these difficulties and completed my PhD on time.

Do you have a favourite anecdote, moment or insight from doing your research?

One interesting observation was that when I conducted interviews with Australian participants in early 2022—in the lead-up to the federal election and during a period of particularly strained Australia–China relations—I was unsure whether the political climate might affect their willingness to comment openly on issues involving bilateral relations and diplomatic engagement. However, the interviewees were very supportive, forthcoming, and candid in sharing their views, providing insights that were essential to my research. This not only allowed me to stay on schedule but also gave me greater confidence and a deeper sense of purpose in my work. I cannot thank my interviewees enough for their genuine and constructive contributions, which were invaluable to my doctoral project.

What are the hopes for the influence of your work?

My doctoral research sits within Asian Studies, focusing on China’s soft power and cultural diplomacy. I hope my research will contribute to the theme of China’s international cultural outreach. CCCs are key instruments of China’s cultural diplomacy, with 50 established worldwide to date. Of these, 34 are located in Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) member states, underscoring their role in Chinese foreign policy. Yet, in-depth research on CCCs outside Australia remains limited. My research aims to draw greater academic attention to CCCs as tools of Chinese cultural diplomacy and to broaden and deepen scholarly discussion in this area.

In addition, I hope my research will have influence through its analytical perspective. Much existing research on cultural diplomacy, including China’s, is conducted from the perspective of the sending actor, with less focus on how initiatives are received. My thesis shifts this focus to the receiving side, examining perceptions of Chinese cultural programs among key stakeholders and audiences. This includes interviews with former cultural diplomats from both countries, as well as Australian arts administrators, academics, and artists with first-hand experience participating in Chinese cultural diplomacy activities. By emphasising reception, my research offers insights into the impact of Chinese cultural diplomacy on local contexts. I hope this approach will encourage further studies to adopt and expand on similar perspectives.

Is there a particular scholar or scholars whose work you admire or shaped your academic trajectory?

My research has been shaped by a number of leading scholars in the field. In particular, it has drawn on the extensive work of Professor Joseph Nye, Professor Nicholas Cull, and Professor Gary Rawnsley on soft power, public diplomacy, and cultural diplomacy. Professor Jan Melissen’s “New Public Diplomacy” paradigm has also influenced my approach to cultural diplomacy, while Dr Falk Hartig’s research on Chinese public and cultural diplomacy, especially his work on CIs, has provided further inspiration.

What are you working on now?

I am currently teaching in the College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences at Flinders University, while expanding my research on Chinese cultural diplomacy through CCCs.

Building on my PhD thesis, I have recently published a book with Routledge, titled Chinese Cultural Diplomacy in the 21st Century: The China Cultural Centre Project.

To expand my doctoral research, I have broadened my focus to include wider geographical regions, including Africa and the Middle East, where China has already established several CCCs and is planning to set up more. This work extends my doctoral research by analysing Chinese cultural diplomacy across broader geographical and political contexts, with particular attention to how China engages with regional actors through cultural means and how effective these efforts have been in shaping perceptions and influence.

In connection with this research, I am also collaborating with Dr Jeffrey Gil on a project examining Taiwan’s cultural diplomacy through the newly established Taiwan Centres for Mandarin Learning (TCML). This study explores how Taiwan leverages Chinese language and culture promotion to raise its international visibility and strengthen its external communication strategies. So far, we have performed an initial mapping of the TCML’s origins, goals, purposes, activities and reception based on its organisational documents and media reporting, from the perspectives of language promotion and soft power. We have also published a preliminary overview of key considerations and opportunities for incorporating the TCML into Australia’s Chinese language education.

Image: William Chen, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons